1. Home
  2. Journals
  3. Clinical Case Studies and Review Reports
  4. Articles In Press
  Submit Manuscript

Research Article | DOI: https://doi.org/CCSRR-RA-25-29

Biomechanical and Physiological Properties of Skeletal Muscles under Isometric Stretching Conditions: A Theoretical Review

Sandip Sinha 1*, Anil Mili 2

1 Research Scholar, Dept. of Physical Education & Sports Science, Rajiv Gandhi University (A Central University), Doimukh (India).  

2 Associate Professor and Research Supervisor, Dept. of Physical Education & Sports Science, Rajiv Gandhi University (A Central University), Doimukh (India). 

*Corresponding Author: Sandip Sinha, Research Scholar, Dept. of Physical Education & Sports Science, Rajiv Gandhi University (A Central University), Doimukh (India).

Citation: Sandip Sinha, Anil Mili (2025). Biomechanical and Physiological Properties of Skeletal Muscles under Isometric Stretching Conditions: A Theoretical Review, J Clinical Case Studies and Review Reports. 2(3) 29, DOI: CCSRR-RA-25-29.

Copyright: Sandip Sinha, et al © (2025). This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Received: 03 June 2025 | Accepted: 10 June 2025 | Published: 17 June 2025

Keywords: skeletal muscle; isometric stretching; length-tension relationship; force-length relationship; force-velocity relationship

Abstract

Purpose: The objective of this document is to understand and an in-depth discussion on the current biomechanical and physiological properties of muscle stretching interventions and summarize the evidences related to isometric stretching as used in exercise, training and rehabilitation programs. Skeletal muscle powers movement, making it an important determinant of physical fitness. 

Methodology: The study emphasizes on the classic excitation-contraction coupling, sliding-filament and crossbridge theories help to describe the processes of muscle activation and the generation of force, work and power. 

Conclusion: The mechanical properties of relaxed muscle have been relatively neglected over the years. Skeletal muscles represent fascinating and complex machinery, enabling active force production, movement and stability of the skeleton, storage and transport of substances within the body, and generation of heat during activity. Still, there is a huge research gap regarding the best stretching protocol.

References

  1. Abusharkh, H. A., et al. (2021). Combining stretching and gallic acid to decrease inflammation indices and promote extracellular matrix production in osteoarthritic human articular chondrocytes. Experimental cell research, 408(2), 112841.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  2. American College of Sports Medicine. (2013). ACSM's guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. Lippincott williams & wilkins.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  3. Babault, N., Kouassi, B. Y., & Desbrosses, K. (2010). Acute effects of 15 min static or contract-relax stretching modalities on plantar flexors neuromuscular properties. Journal of science and medicine in sport, 13(2), 247-252.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  4. Behm, D. G., & Kibele, A. (2007). Effects of differing intensities of static stretching on jump performance. European journal of applied physiology, 101, 587-594.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  5. Behm, D. G., & Chaouachi, A. (2011). A review of the acute effects of static and dynamic stretching on performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 111(11), 2633–2651. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-011-1879-2
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  6. Behm, D. G., et al. (2004). Effect of acute static stretching on force, balance, reaction time, and movement time. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 36(8), 1397-1402.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  7. Beedle, B. B., & Mann, C. L. (2007). Acomparison of Two Warm-Ups on Joint Range of Motion. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 21(3), 776-779.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  8. Bradley, P. S., Olsen, P. D., & Portas, M. D. (2007). The effect of static, ballistic, and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching on vertical jump performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 21(1), 223–226. https://doi.org/10.1519/00124278-200702000-00040
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  9. Caplan, N., et al. (2009). The effect of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation and static stretch training on running mechanics. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 23(4), 1175-1180.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  10. Cipriani, D. J., et al. (2012). Effect of stretch frequency and sex on the rate of gain and rate of loss in muscle flexibility during a hamstring-stretching program: a randomized single-blind longitudinal study. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 26(8), 2119-2129.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  11. Cè, E., et al. (2008). Effects of stretching on maximal anaerobic power: the roles of active and passive warm-ups. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 22(3), 794-800.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  12. Chatzopoulos, D. et al. (2014). Acute effects of static and dynamic stretching on balance, agility, reaction time and movement time. PubMed. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24790497
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  13. Condon, S. M., & Hutton, R. S. (1987). Soleus muscle electromyographic activity and ankle dorsiflexion range of motion during four stretching procedures. Physical Therapy, 67(1), 24-30.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  14. Chow, T. P., & Ng, G. Y. (2010). Active, passive and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching are comparable in improving the knee flexion range in people with total knee replacement: a randomized controlled trial. Clinical rehabilitation, 24(10), 911-918.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  15. Curry, B. S., et al. (2009). Acute effects of dynamic stretching, static stretching, and light aerobic activity on muscular performance in women. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 23(6), 1811-1819.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  16. Ferber, R., Gravelle, D. C., & Osternig, L. R. (2002). Effect of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretch techniques on trained and untrained older adults. Journal of aging and physical activity, 10(2), 132-142.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  17. Franco, B. L., et al. (2012). Acute effects of three different stretching protocols on the wingate test performance. DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals). https://doaj.org/article/b7a42ba378ec47bdbb624ae49f014b41
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  18. Frontera, W. R., & Ochala, J. (2015). Skeletal muscle: a brief review of structure and function. Calcified tissue international, 96(3), 183–195. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00223-014-9915-y
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  19. Fletcher, I. M., & Jones, B. (2004). The effect of different warm-up stretch protocols on 20 meter sprint performance in trained rugby union players. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 18(4), 885-888.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  20. Gajdosik, R. L. (2001). Passive extensibility of skeletal muscle: review of the literature with clinical implications. Clinical Biomechanics, 16(2), 87–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0268-0033(00)00061-9
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  21. Gash, M. C., et al. (2023). Physiology, Muscle Contraction. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  22. Godges, J. J., et al. (1989). The effects of two stretching procedures on hip range of motion and gait economy. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, 10(9), 350-357.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  23. Hagiwara, Y., et al. (2010). Expression of collagen types I and II on articular cartilage in a rat knee contracture model. Connective tissue research, 51(1), 22-30.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  24. Hazari, A., Maiya, A. G., & Nagda, T. V. (2021). Conceptual Biomechanics and Kinesiology. Springer.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  25. Herzog, W. (2018). Correction to: skeletal muscle mechanics: questions, problems and possible solutions. Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12984-018-0351-5
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  26. Herman, S. L., & Smith, D. T. (2008). Four-week dynamic stretching warm-up intervention elicits longer-term performance benefits. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 22(4), 1286-1297.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  27. Hotta, K. et al. (2018). Daily muscle stretching enhances blood flow, endothelial function, capillarity, vascular volume and connectivity in aged skeletal muscle. The Journal of physiology, 596(10), 1903-1917.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  28. Kay, A. D., & Blazevich, A. J. (2012). Effect of acute static stretch on maximal muscle performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 44(1), 154–164. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e318225cb27
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  29. Kataura, S., et al. (2017). Acute effects of the different intensity of static stretching on flexibility and isometric muscle force. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 31(12), 3403-3410.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  30. Kistler, B. M., et al. (2010). The acute effects of static stretching on the sprint performance of collegiate men in the 60-and 100-m dash after a dynamic warm-up. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 24(9), 2280-2284.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  31. Kubo, K., Kanehisa, H., Ito, M., & Fukunaga, T. (2001). Effects of isometric training on the elasticity of human tendon structures in vivo. Journal of Applied Physiology, 91(1), 26–32. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.2001.91.1.26
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  32. Kuo, I. Y., & Ehrlich, B. E. (2015). Signaling in muscle contraction. Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in biology, 7(2), a006023. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a006023
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  33. Kurt, C. (2016). Comparison of the acute effects of static and dynamic stretching exercises on flexibility, agility and anaerobic performance in professional football players. Türkiye Fiziksel Tıp Ve Rehabilitasyon Dergisi, 62(3), 206–213. https://doi.org/10.5606/tftrd.2016.32698
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  34. Knudson, D. (2006). The biomechanics of stretching. Journal of Exercise Science and Physiotherapy, 2, 3-12.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  35. Libretexts. (2023). 9.3A: force of muscle contraction. Medicine LibreTexts. https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anatomy_and_Physiology/Anatomy_and_Physiology_(Boundless)/9%3A_Muscular_System/9.3%3A_Control_of_Muscle_Tension/9.3A%3A_Force_of_Muscle_Contraction
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  36. Lowey, S., Waller, G. S., & Trybus, K. M. (1993). Function of skeletal muscle myosin heavy and light chain isoforms by an in vitro motility assay. The Journal of biological chemistry, 268(27), 20414–20418.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  37. Ludwig, P. E., Reddy, V., & Varacallo, M. (2022). Neuroanatomy, Central Nervous System (CNS). In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  38. Magnusson, S. P. (1998). Passive properties of human skeletal muscle during stretch maneuvers. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 8(2), 65–77. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.1998.tb00171.x
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  39. Marek, S. M., et al. (2005). Acute effects of static and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching on muscle strength and power output. Journal of athletic training, 40(2), 94.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  40. McHugh, M. P., & Cosgrave, C. H. (2010). To stretch or not to stretch: the role of stretching in injury prevention and performance. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports, 20(2), 169-181.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  41. Mendoza, E., Moen, D. S., & Holt, N. C. (2023). The importance of comparative physiology: mechanisms, diversity and adaptation in skeletal muscle physiology and mechanics. The Journal of Experimental Biology, 226(Suppl_1). https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.245158
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  42. McMillian, D. J., et al. (2006). Dynamic vs. Static-Stretching Warm Up: The Effect on Power and Agility Performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 20(3), 492. https://doi.org/10.1519/18205.1
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  43. MEFANET, Czech and Slovak medical faculties network. (n.d.). Biomechanics of muscle contraction - WikiLectures. https://www.wikilectures.eu/w/Biomechanics_of_muscle_contraction
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  44. Mili, A., Sinha, S., (2023). The Effect of Static Stretching Exercise when combined with the FIFA 11+ Warming-Up Programme on selected Physical Performance Parameters in Female Recreational Futsal Players. Education and Society. Vol. 47 (1). No. 1. pp. 44-53. ISSN: 2278-6864.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  45. Mili, A., Sinha, S., and Hussain, A. (2023). The Effect of Isometric Stretching Combined as Post-Dynamic Warming-Up on Skill related Physical Fitness Components among Football Players. Madhya Bharti. Vol. 83 (5). pp. 23-32. ISSN: 0974-0066.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  46. Murphy, J., et al. (2010). Aerobic activity before and following short-duration static stretching improves range of motion and performance vs. a traditional warm-up. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 35(5), 679–690. https://doi.org/10.1139/h10-062
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  47. Moore, M. A., & Hutton, R. S. (1980). Electromyographic investigation of muscle stretching techniques. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 12(5), 322-329.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  48. Ogura, Y., et al. (2007). Duration of static stretching influences muscle force production in hamstring muscles. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 21(3), 788. https://doi.org/10.1519/r-18785.1
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  49. Rassier D. E. (2017). Sarcomere mechanics in striated muscles: from molecules to sarcomeres to cells. American journal of physiology. Cell physiology, 313(2), C134–C145. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpcell.00050.2017
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  50. Rosenblueth, A., Alanis, J., & Rubio, R. (1958). A comparative study of the isometric and isotonic contractions of striated muscles. Archives internationales de physiologie et de biochimie, 66(3), 330–353. https://doi.org/10.3109/13813455809084213
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  51. Robbins, J. W., & Scheuermann, B. W. (2008). Varying amounts of acute static stretching and its effect on vertical jump performance. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 22(3), 781-786.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  52. Šimić, L., Šarabon, N., & Markovic, G. (2012). Does pre-exercise static stretching inhibit maximal muscular performance? A meta-analytical review. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 23(2), 131–148. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2012.01444.x
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  53. Sweeney, H. L., & Hammers, D. W. (2018). Muscle contraction. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology, 10(2), a023200. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a023200
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  54. Taylor, K. L., et al. (2009). Negative effect of static stretching restored when combined with a sport specific warm-up component. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 12(6), 657-661.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  55. Williams, P. E., & Goldspink, G. (1984). Connective tissue changes in immobilised muscle. Journal of anatomy, 138 ( Pt 2)(Pt 2), 343–350.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  56. Young, W., Elias, G., & Power, J. (2006). Effects of static stretching volume and intensity on plantar flexor explosive force production and range of motion. Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness, 46(3), 403.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  57. Zvetkova, E., et al. (2023). Biomechanical, Healing and Therapeutic Effects of Stretching: A Comprehensive review. Applied Sciences, 13(15), 8596. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13158596
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
img

Harry Brooks

journal of Clinical Case Studies and Review Reports. I would be very delighted to submit my testimonial regarding the reviewer board and the editorial office.the reviewer board were accurate and helpful regarding anu modifications for my manuscript,and the editorial office were very helpful and supportive in contacting and monitoring with any update and offering help.it was my pleasure to contribute with your promising journal and i am looking forward for more collaboration.

img

Mark

My testimonial covering : the peer review process is qucick and effective,the support from the editorial office is very professional and friendly, quality of the Clinical Case Studies and Review Reports is scientific and publishers research.

img

Sinisa franjic

i would like to thank the editorial team for their timely responses and consideration in the publication of my paper . I would encourage to publish there research in ScienceFrontier.

img

Ritu Tiwari

I am pleased to submit my testimonials regarding the reviewer board and the editorial office. As a peer reviewer for the manuscript titled “A Novel Dissolution Method for Simultaneous Estimation of sennoside A and Sennoside B in Senna Tablet,” I was consistently impressed by the reviewers’ thorough analysis, insightful feedback, and unwavering commitment to enhancing the quality of the work. Their reviews were comprehensive and characterized by a respectful and collaborative approach, providing valuable suggestions that significantly improved the paper's outcome. Their dedication to the peer review process demonstrated their expertise and steadfast pursuit of excellence.

img

Qader Bawerdi

With all due respect, I would like to express my opinion on the peer review, editorial support, and the quality of the journal as follows: The peer review was conducted quickly and with great care, and my article was accepted for publication in less than a week. The editorial support regarding the status of the article process was excellent, and they informed me every day until the acceptance of the current status of the article version, and regarding how to answer questions, the editorial support was excellent, timely, and friendly, and they answered questions as soon as possible and did not hesitate. The quality of the journal was excellent and it made me proud to be acquainted with the journal, and I sincerely look forward to extensive scientific collaborations in any field. I hope for increasing success and pride for the International Journal of Social Science Research and Review and all scientific and knowledge-based communities. Thank you

img

Bhuvanagiri Sathya Sindhuja

"I would like to express my sincere appreciation for the opportunity to contribute to this esteemed journal. The publication process was smooth, well-coordinated, and the peer reviewers deemed highly professional. The editorial team demonstrated exceptional diligence and support at every stage, ensuring a seamless experience from submission to final publication. I am truly honored to be featured in such a reputable platform and look forward to future collaborations."

img

Safana Abdullah Algutaini

Testimonial for the Journal of Biomedical Research and Clinical Advancements It was a truly rewarding experience publishing our study, "Single-Surgeon Outcomes of Left Ventricular Aneurysm Repair in Wartime Syria: A 10-Year Retrospective Study at Damascus University Cardiac Surgery Hospital," with the Journal of Biomedical Research and Clinical Advancements. The editorial and peer-review process was both rigorous and efficient, demonstrating a high standard of academic integrity and scientific scrutiny. The journal’s commitment to open access and global health equity is evident in its support of research emerging from conflict-affected and resource-limited settings—making our work not only visible but impactful. The professionalism of the editorial team, the speed of communication, and the clarity of submission guidelines all contributed to a smooth publication process. We were particularly impressed by the quality of the publication layout and the prompt indexing of our article, which enhances its accessibility to clinicians, researchers, and policymakers worldwide. We are proud to have contributed to this journal and highly recommend it to fellow researchers seeking a reputable platform to disseminate clinically significant and globally relevant findings.